How Does Emotion Affect Information Communication

Positive emotions can significantly enhance the understanding of information, but they may also increase cognitive load for individuals in certain situations. Firstly, positive emotions aid individuals in understanding complex information more deeply by enhancing motivation and attention. For instance, Egidi & Nusbaum [57] found that individuals in a positive emotional state exhibit greater depth of understanding when processing emotional language information, as positive emotions enhance focus and motivation. Additionally, Megalakaki et al. [9] and Zhang [73] noted that positive emotions can expand cognitive resources, enabling individuals to analyze complex texts in greater detail, thereby enhancing comprehension outcomes. Tyng et al. [49] further indicated that this emotional state broadens the range of attention, facilitating the processing of multiple complex pieces of information and thereby improving understanding capabilities. However, positive emotions may affect the accuracy of understanding due to increased cognitive load. Research by Jiménez-Ortega et al. [45] showed that, although cognitive processing is deeper in a positive emotional state, individuals exhibit longer reaction times and higher error rates in semantic processing tasks. This may be because positive emotions lead individuals to focus on both core information and secondary details, thereby distracting attention and increasing cognitive load.

In contrast to positive emotions, negative emotions have a complex and multidimensional impact on information comprehension. Research indicates that negative emotions enhance attention to detail, potentially improving reasoning abilities, but they may also weaken overall comprehension [57, 74]. For example, Lang et al. [74] found that viewers in a negative emotional state paid more attention to negative details in news reports, neglecting the overall content. A study by Arfé et al. [10] also showed that the negative emotion group had significantly longer initial fixation times during text reading compared to the neutral emotion group, indicating that this emotional state triggered deeper information processing. Additionally, negative emotions prompt individuals to engage in deeper reasoning and analysis, which is very beneficial for understanding complex information [9]. However, negative emotions may also lead individuals to interpret information from a biased perspective, thereby reducing objectivity and rational judgment abilities, which affects the accurate understanding of information [49].

Finally, the impact of neutral emotions on information comprehension is relatively balanced and not as pronounced as that of positive or negative emotions. In a neutral emotional state, the lack of emotional bias leads to more stable information processing and a more balanced allocation of resources. For example, studies by Earles et al. [75] and Megalakaki et al. [9] indicate that neutral emotions are conducive to maintaining objectivity and consistency in information processing. This emotional state does not significantly enhance or weaken comprehension abilities but has a particular advantage in tasks requiring high objectivity and accuracy. However, the lack of emotional cues in a neutral emotional state may hinder deep processing of information and long-term memory. Overall, neutral emotions exhibit a neutral role in information comprehension and are suitable for performing tasks that require high objectivity and stability.

The impact of emotional arousal on information comprehension depends on the intensity of arousal. High-arousal emotions, such as fear or excitement, can significantly alter cognitive states, enhancing attention concentration in a short period and prompting prioritized processing of key information [76]. This concentrated allocation of cognitive resources aids quick responses in complex situations, but it may also lead to a “tunnel effect,” where individuals are prone to neglect non-core information and details. For example, individuals experiencing intense threatening emotions focus more on the source of the threat and coping strategies, while memories of other details may become vague [50]. Additionally, high-arousal emotional states may lead to increased cognitive load, thereby reducing comprehension accuracy [45]. High-arousal emotions are often accompanied by tension or anxiety, which interfere with comprehensive and rational information analysis, increasing the likelihood of cognitive biases. In this state, individuals are more inclined to process information emotionally, a tendency that becomes more pronounced when dealing with negative emotions [77].

In contrast, low-arousal emotions, such as mild pleasure or worry, have a more balanced impact on information comprehension. Under low-arousal emotional states, the allocation of cognitive resources is more balanced, making it easier to integrate multiple sources of information for comprehensive understanding. In this emotional state, individuals are less likely to be disturbed by emotions, allowing for effective integration of complex texts or multi-source information, thereby enhancing the accuracy and comprehensiveness of overall comprehension. Under low to moderate arousal emotions, individuals’ cognitive flexibility is enhanced, which not only aids in processing complex information but also improves creative thinking, resulting in better performance across various comprehension tasks [49].

In summary, emotional arousal influences information comprehension in different ways. High-arousal emotions facilitate the rapid understanding and processing of critical information in emergency situations but may limit comprehensive integration of complex information; whereas low-arousal emotions are more suitable for tasks requiring balanced and in-depth analysis, aiding in comprehensive and objective understanding of information.

Emotional dominance refers to the dominance and dominance that an individual perceives in a given situation, and its level has a profound impact on information comprehension and cognitive processing. High dominance emotions are typically associated with confidence, a dominance, and positive emotional responses [78]. This state not only enhances the individual’s dominance over the environment but also promotes the efficient allocation of cognitive resources. Research indicates that individuals experiencing high dominance emotions are more likely to actively process situational information, prioritize key information, and adjust strategies based on needs, resulting in better performance in complex decision-making [71].

In contrast, low dominance emotions are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety and helplessness, which suppress the effective utilization of cognitive resources [79]. Individuals with low dominance often struggle to focus their attention during information processing due to emotional disturbances, resulting in passive responses or even misinterpretation of information. Furthermore, research indicates that low dominance emotions may impair executive function, making it difficult for individuals to complete multitasking or integrate complex information [72].

The role of emotional dominance in comprehension is also reflected in its impact on emotion regulation. Individuals experiencing high dominance emotions enhance information processing efficiency by optimizing emotional responses (such as reducing negative emotional interference), while low dominance emotions may exacerbate emotional fluctuations, further hindering the normal functioning of cognitive abilities [72, 79]. This suggests that emotional dominance not only influences an individual’s emotional experience but also determines the depth and breadth of information comprehension, which in turn affects overall decision-making and behavior [71, 80].

The influence of emotions on information comprehension is multidimensional, with valence, arousal, and dominance collectively shaping individuals’ processing and integration of information. Positive emotions, by expanding cognitive resources and enhancing motivation, facilitate information integration and the understanding of complex texts but may affect accuracy due to attention dispersion [57]. Negative emotions enhance attention to details and improve reasoning ability but may limit overall efficiency due to increased cognitive load [74]. Neutral emotions stabilize the allocation of cognitive resources, maintaining objectivity and consistency in comprehension, making them suitable for tasks requiring high precision [75]. Arousal has a particularly significant impact on comprehension: high-arousal emotions prioritize core information but may overlook minor details, while low-arousal emotions support comprehensive information integration, making understanding deeper and more flexible [50]. Dominance further affects individuals’ dominance over information: high-dominance emotions enhance proactivity and processing efficiency, while low-dominance emotions may lead to distraction and comprehension difficulties [71]. The interaction of emotional variables profoundly impacts information comprehension performance, revealing the complex relationship between emotions and cognition.

Positive emotions play a significant facilitative role in the formation and retention of memory, particularly in influencing emotionally relevant information. Research has found that even in the case of incidental memory, positive emotions can deepen the retention of emotional vocabulary and related concepts, making individuals more likely to activate and recall these associated contents [58, 9]. Furthermore, individuals in a positive emotional state are more likely to remember information related to positive emotions, indicating that positive emotions significantly enhance the memory of associated information. Additionally, individuals experiencing pleasant emotions perform better in free recall and associative memory tests than those in a neutral emotional state [81, 25], allowing for more accurate recall of brand names and associated information [70]. This suggests that positive emotions not only aid in remembering specific information but also expand and integrate overall memory capabilities. Positive emotions also play a crucial role in the retention of long-term memory.

Numerous experimental studies have indicated that positive emotions positively influence both the formation and long-term retention of memory [49]; for example, individuals in a pleasant emotional state retain memory of photographs for a longer duration, regardless of whether these photographs contain emotional content [25]. Images associated with positive emotions are more easily recognized and remembered than neutral or negative images; thus, positive emotions facilitate the consolidation and storage of information, promoting the retention of memory over longer periods [82].

In contrast, the effects of negative emotions on memory are more complex, including enhanced memory accuracy, strengthened consolidation of long-term memory, as well as an increased likelihood of false memories. Negative emotions enhance individuals’ attention to key details, which not only improves memory accuracy in free recall and cued recall tasks [59, 60, 26], but also enables more accurate memory recall after longer periods [27]. This phenomenon may occur because negative emotions encourage individuals to engage in more in-depth processing of event details, thereby enhancing the durability of memories. However, negative emotions can also have side effects, such as an increase in false memories [76]. This is because, while focusing on core details, individuals may overlook other information, necessitating the “filling in” of these gaps during recall [83].

The impact of neutral emotions on memory is relatively weak, generally falling between that of positive and negative emotions. Neutral emotions lack significant emotional arousal, which leads to lower prioritization in encoding and consolidating memories of neutral emotional content [75, 60, 9, 84]. Nevertheless, neutral emotions can enhance stability and consistency in performance for certain tasks. For example, maintaining a neutral emotional state during tasks requiring high precision can reduce emotional interference, thereby improving stability and consistency in task performance [85, 86]. Additionally, individuals in a neutral emotional state are better able to sustain attention, facilitating more efficient processing and retention of information.

The impact of emotional arousal on memory is a complex and significant process. Research indicates that, compared to low-arousal or neutral events, high-arousal emotional events are typically easier to remember and play an important role in the processes of memory formation, consolidation, and retrieval.

Firstly, during the encoding process of memory, high-arousal emotional events can significantly enhance the level of detail in memory. This is because high-arousal emotions allocate more cognitive resources to relevant information, improving the accuracy and durability of memory [50]. For instance, after experiencing high-arousal emotional events such as trauma or extreme excitement, individuals often vividly remember the details of the event.

During the consolidation phase of memory, high-arousal emotional events promote long-term storage of memories through the regulation of hormonal levels in the body. The release of these hormones strengthens memory traces, making them easier to recall accurately after extended periods [53]. For example, individuals who have experienced high-arousal emotional events such as significant accidents or personal achievements can vividly reconstruct specific scenarios from those events, even after a long time has passed.

During the process of memory retrieval, the influence of high-arousal emotions is equally significant. High-arousal emotions often trigger vivid and specific recollections, prompting individuals to focus on core information and key details during retrieval. However, while high-arousal emotions can aid in recalling details, they may also increase recall biases and errors, especially when dealing with negative emotional events. Research shows that high-arousal negative emotions may lead to selective biases, where individuals focus on specific emotional content while neglecting other minor details, potentially resulting in false memories [83].

In summary, emotional arousal significantly influences individuals’ memory performance for emotional events by enhancing the processes of encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. This enhancement effect makes high-arousal emotional events more memorable and leads to longer retention compared to low-arousal or neutral emotional events. However, high arousal can also increase the selectivity and bias of memory, thereby affecting its accuracy.

The role of emotional dominance in memory primarily manifests in memory selectivity and memory reconstruction. Research shows that in high dominance emotional states, individuals tend to prioritize remembering key information related to their own emotions. This memory selectivity enhances the depth of storage for important information, enabling individuals to quickly retrieve key content when needed [61]. For example, in threatening situations, high dominance fear emotions significantly enhance memory for threat-related information through the activation of the amygdala, ensuring that individuals can respond quickly in similar situations [87].

However, the effects of high dominance emotions are not limited to negative emotions. High dominance in positive emotions, such as excitement and joy, also enhances memory comprehensiveness. In this state, individuals not only remember core information but also effectively integrate relevant background information, forming a more comprehensive memory structure [38]. In contrast, low dominance emotional states generally limit an individual’s memory capacity. In this state, individuals are more likely to neglect non-emotional information, leading to fragmented or distorted memories [88].

Furthermore, emotional dominance has a profound impact on memory reconstruction. Individuals with high dominance emotions tend to focus on positive or useful content during memory recall, thereby enhancing the functionality of memory [38, 88]. In contrast, individuals with low dominance emotions may be biased towards retrieving negative memories due to emotional interference, which may further impair their coping and emotion regulation abilities [87, 61]. These differences suggest that emotional dominance not only influences memory quality through memory selectivity but also shapes an individual’s cognitive patterns through the memory reconstruction process [89, 88].

The impact of emotions on memory is a complex multidimensional process, with valence, arousal, and dominance collectively shaping the formation and retrieval of memory. Positive emotions typically enhance the encoding and consolidation of associative information by expanding cognitive resources, improving the retention of long-term memory, but may interfere with focus on core information due to attention dispersion [81]. Negative emotions increase attention to detail, improving memory accuracy and durability, but neglect of non-core information may lead to the creation of false memories [59, 83]. Neutral emotions provide balance and stability to the memory process, particularly for tasks requiring high objectivity and precision [85]. Arousal also plays a crucial role in memory: high-arousal emotions enhance the depth and durability of memory by focusing cognitive resources but may increase selective bias due to neglect of secondary information [50]. Low-arousal emotions, on the other hand, support the comprehensive integration of information, making memory more holistic and flexible. Meanwhile, high-dominance emotions enhance the memory and recall of critical information, while low-dominance emotions may result in fragmented and distorted memories [38, 88]. Overall, the profound influence of emotions on memory reveals the complex interactions between emotions and cognitive functions.

Positive emotions play a crucial role in promoting information sharing, but the complexity of their impact should not be overlooked. Research shows that individuals are more inclined to share content on social media under the influence of positive emotions. Ferrara & Yang [24] noted that positive emotions increase the appeal of social media content, thereby facilitating its widespread communication. Additionally, studies by Stieglitz & Dang-Xuan [47] and Schreiner et al. [5] have found that content with positive emotions is more likely to be shared and commented on, indicating that positive emotions can significantly enhance the communication of information.

However, the impact of positive emotions is not always beneficial. Dabbous & Aoun Barakat [7] observed that while positive emotions enhance the appeal of information, they may also lead users to overlook its authenticity, thereby unintentionally contributing to the communication of inaccurate or false information. These findings suggest that although positive emotions can support the communication of information, their effects must be carefully managed to mitigate the spread of misleading content.

In contrast, negative emotions also play a significant role in information communication. Studies show that negative emotions such as anger, sadness, or anxiety can stimulate users’ willingness to share and spread information. Ferrara & Yang [24] noted that negative emotional content on social media is prone to emotional contagion, prompting users to seek emotional resonance and social support through sharing. Moreover, in crises and political events, the role of negative emotions is particularly prominent; they can encourage the public to focus more deeply on and understand relevant information in crisis situations, thereby accelerating the communication of information [51]. Research by De León & Trilling [6] and Rojo López & Naranjo [46] has shown that negative emotions significantly increase the number of times news is shared and public attention.

Neutral emotions, while having a relatively weaker influence on information sharing, still contribute to the process of information communication. Due to the absence of a strong emotional drive, content associated with neutral emotions typically exhibits lower attractiveness and spreadability on social media. However, research by Son et al. [48] highlights the unique value of neutral emotions, as individuals in a neutral emotional state are more likely to adopt a rational and objective perspective. This tendency supports the accurate conveyance and reception of information. Consequently, although neutral emotions are less effective than other emotions in amplifying the spread of information, they play an indispensable role in maintaining objectivity and accuracy in communication.

By integrating and examining the impact of positive, negative, and neutral emotions on information communication, we can better understand and utilize the complex role of emotions in information sharing, thereby effectively guiding the design and communication strategies of social media content.

Emotional arousal plays an important role in information sharing on social media. Studies show that both positive and negative high-arousal emotions significantly increase the spread of information [40]. High-arousal emotions such as awe, excitement, anger, or anxiety stimulate a sense of urgency and motivation in users, prompting them to share content more frequently on social media [37]. In crisis events or major news, high-arousal negative emotions such as anger or anxiety often trigger strong reactions in users, driving them to quickly share related information on social media [46, 51]. This sharing behavior is often motivated by the need to seek social support or express emotional resonance. Conversely, high-arousal positive emotions such as excitement and awe not only enhance users’ sharing behavior but also expand the range of information communication. This indicates that users are more inclined to share content on social media when experiencing positive high-arousal emotions, seeking social validation and emotional resonance [48]. However, the communication effect of high-arousal emotions also poses risks. In highly emotional states, especially during crisis events or periods of social unrest, users may quickly share information without adequate verification, thereby increasing the risk of spreading fake news and misinformation [7].

Conversely, the communication effect of low-arousal emotions is relatively weak; the lack of strong stimulation usually results in users being calmer or more neutral in such emotional states, leading to a lower motivation to share [48]. However, in specific contexts, low-arousal positive emotions such as contentment or gratitude may also prompt users to share information with the aim of supporting or educating others [47]. Additionally, low-arousal negative emotions, such as sadness, may motivate users to reflect deeply and engage in discussions about major disasters or social issues. This process can promote information communication to seek social support or drive social change. [6].

Therefore, emotional arousal is a key factor determining the effectiveness of information communication on social media, with high-arousal emotions typically amplifying both the spread of information and the motivation to share it, while low-arousal emotions exert a more subtle influence on user sharing behavior, particularly in specific contexts. These findings offer valuable guidance for optimizing social media strategies and enhancing crisis management approaches.

Emotional dominance plays a decisive role in information sharing. Individuals in high dominance emotional states typically exhibit strong self-confidence and social dominance, making them more willing to actively share information. Such individuals tend to view sharing behavior as an important means of expressing self-worth and influence [71]. Research indicates that this emotional state encourages individuals to participate more actively in information exchange and establish higher social status within groups [38]. Social cognitive theory [90] provides theoretical support for this phenomenon. Individuals with high dominance emotions often reinforce their self-efficacy through sharing behaviors and use positive feedback during the sharing process to further enhance their social skills and influence. In contrast, individuals with low dominance emotions perceive information sharing as a threat due to a lack of confidence, fearing negative evaluation from loss of control or questioning [91]. This psychological drive leads individuals with low dominance emotions to adopt conservative or passive sharing strategies.

Additionally, social comparison theory [92] reveals the deeper motivations of emotional dominance in information sharing: individuals with high dominance emotions tend to engage in positive comparisons through sharing behaviors, thereby further solidifying their advantages within the group. For example, they are more inclined to share information related to achievements or successes to enhance others’ recognition of their abilities. In contrast, individuals with low dominance emotions tend to avoid sharing behaviors to prevent exposing weaknesses or losing control during comparisons [93].

In summary, emotional dominance not only determines the motivation and strategies for information sharing but also shapes individuals’ social roles and influence within groups [71, 90]. High dominance emotions encourage individuals to achieve social goals through active sharing, while low dominance emotions limit their ability to disseminate information, potentially further diminishing their status and value within social networks [38, 93].

The influence of emotions on information sharing is multi-layered and complex. Positive emotions enhance content appeal and willingness to interact, promoting rapid information diffusion on social media [24]; however, this facilitation may also lead users to overlook the authenticity of the information [7]. Negative emotions, with their strong emotional resonance effect, particularly in crises and political events, drive widespread communication of information [46]. Neutral emotions, although less likely to promote communication, have unique advantages in ensuring the accuracy and objectivity of information [48]. High-arousal emotions, whether positive or negative, significantly enhance sharing motivation and communication breadth, while low-arousal emotions are better suited for in-depth discussions and reflection [37]. Dominance affects information-sharing strategies: high-dominance emotions encourage individuals to actively share to enhance social status, while low-dominance emotions tend toward selective sharing or avoidance [71, 90]. The combined effects of emotional valence, arousal, and dominance further reveal the multidimensionality of information communication, providing valuable insights for optimizing social media communication strategies.

Headline, as the first point of contact for readers engaging with a text, significantly influence emotional valence and arousal levels. Studies indicate that forward-reference, a common headline design strategy, employs pronouns or phrases to hint at subsequent content (e.g., “This is why” or “What you would never expect”), creating an information gap that arouses readers’ curiosity about the unknown, prompting further reading [98]. This technique, by leveraging logical incompleteness of information, stimulates exploratory interest and serves as an effective method to enhance emotional arousal.

This process not only affects readers’ cognition but also activates the amygdala and sympathetic nervous system through the neural system, triggering physiological responses such as increased heart rate and pupil dilation, which further enhance tension and focus [18, 153]. Such physiological activation gives title design a stronger emotional driving force. Additionally, titles such as “Last Chance” or “Miss It, Lose It” may also trigger bodily alertness through the sensorimotor system, such as muscle tension or rapid breathing, aiding users in quickly focusing on information [152].

In contrast, suspense-based strategies focus on creating emotional tension and anticipation within headlines, using phrases such as “You’ll regret not seeing this” or “Stunning discoveries shocked everyone” to emphasize importance or surprise and evoke emotional engagement. This design also significantly impacts the cognitive system by guiding users to quickly assess situations (e.g., “Miracle Happens” evokes positive emotions, while “Time is Running Out” evokes anxiety), prompting them to take action [36].

The simplicity of a headline and the use of symbols are equally crucial for eliciting readers’ emotional responses. Concise headlines reduce cognitive load, enabling readers to quickly grasp core information and thereby enhancing emotional arousal levels. Special symbols (e.g., parentheses or dashes) further emphasize key information, increasing the attractiveness of headlines [97]. Additionally, celebrity effects and trending topics can significantly enhance emotional arousal levels. Incorporating celebrity names or referencing popular events in headlines helps capture attention, evoke emotional reactions, and increase click-through rates [96].

However, the use of vague wording and interrogative sentences in title design must be approached with caution. Although they can enhance emotional arousal, excessive use may undermine content credibility and reduce emotional valence [95]. Therefore, by balancing simplicity, symbol usage, and information clarity, title design can achieve an optimal balance between attracting attention and maintaining trust.

Narrative structure significantly influences readers’ emotional experiences by organizing information and plot arrangements. The core of narrative structure lies in designing the unfolding of a story, including setting emotional tone frameworks, controlling emotional rhythms, and employing tension and suspense to shape emotional valence and arousal levels. The emotional tone framework at the beginning lays the overall atmosphere of the story and is a critical component of the narrative structure. For instance, adopting a negative tone as the opening design can add a sense of oppression and tension to the narrative, making subsequent conflicts more striking; whereas a positive tone creates a relaxed and pleasant emotional atmosphere for readers, mitigating emotional tension in later developments [15]. This emotional framework not only influences the story’s overall atmosphere but also modulates the degree of readers’ emotional engagement. Negative-toned scenarios may also activate the sensorimotor system by triggering reactions such as muscle tension or rapid breathing [152, 18].

Tension and suspense design are crucial methods for enhancing emotional arousal in narrative structures. By gradually revealing crisis situations and delaying information disclosure, narratives can evoke readers’ anticipation and emotional engagement. For example, during the climax or key turning points of a story, creating conflicting tensions can elevate emotional intensity, significantly enhancing the immersive experience of emotional engagement. Additionally, strategically placing high-emotion points (such as suspense or climax scenes) at the beginning, climax, and end of a narrative enriches the emotional rhythm and further strengthens emotional valence [16]. Suspenseful design not only sustains emotional tension but may also activate the reader’s nervous system, leading to increased heart rate and pupil dilation, further strengthening emotional memory through amygdala activity [18, 16] .

Additionally, strategically placing high-emotion nodes (such as suspense or climactic scenes) at the beginning, climax, and conclusion of a narrative enriches the emotional rhythm and further enhances emotional valence [16]. The control of emotional rhythm is another crucial factor by which narrative structure influences emotional experiences. Stories with high-frequency emotional fluctuations maintain tension by rapidly switching emotional states (e.g., alternating fear and hope), keeping readers highly engaged. However, excessively frequent fluctuations may lead to emotional fatigue, reducing readers’ emotional engagement [17]. Conversely, narratives with more stable emotional rhythms are better suited to guiding audiences into sustained emotional states; for example, heartwarming stories maintain a consistent emotional tone, allowing readers to feel comfortable and relaxed throughout the reading process [16]. This control of emotional rhythm not only enhances the narrative’s immersive quality but also prevents emotional overload or fatigue.

Narrative content profoundly influences audience emotions through the selection of specific plot elements, character development, and emotional tension control. Different plot types directly shape emotional valence; for example, negative emotional content (such as crises, pain, or loss) often evokes sadness and sympathy, while positive emotional content (such as recovery, victory, or hope) enhances positive emotional valence, making the audience feel optimistic and reassured [15, 17]. This influence on emotional valence not only affects the cognitive level but may also trigger noticeable physiological reactions. For example, scenes depicting fear or tension often lead to bodily mimicry responses, such as muscle tension or rapid breathing, thereby activating the sensorimotor system [152, 18].

Character development and emotional resonance are important means of deepening emotional experiences in narrative content. When emotional depictions of characters in a narrative are authentic and detailed, the audience is more likely to experience psychological resonance, enter the emotional world of the characters, and further enhance emotional arousal. For instance, plot designs in which characters encounter and gradually overcome challenges can lead the audience to empathize and form deep emotional identification with the characters’ experiences. Additionally, personal associations triggered by the plot content can intensify emotional responses. When the audience connects the story to their own experiences, this similarity can significantly amplify emotional valence, making the emotional experience more profound [15, 106]. This process activates the audience’s cognitive system, which evaluates the reasonableness of the characters’ actions within the context, further modulating emotional responses.

The regulation of plot intensity and emotional tension directly influences the depth and duration of emotional arousal. For example, intense negative emotional scenarios (such as loss, fear, or crisis) often trigger high emotional arousal [16], activating the amygdala and the sympathetic nervous system in the neural network, leading to adrenaline secretion and maintaining the audience’s focused attention [18, 16]. This physiological response not only intensifies the emotional experience but also extends the emotional memory, leaving a profound impression of the storyline on the audience. On this basis, the design of complex emotional plots (such as the intertwining of pain and hope) enhances the depth of emotional layers, allowing the audience to experience deeper resonance through the emotional highs and lows [100]. This display of emotional complexity not only enables the audience to experience richer emotions but also stimulates achievement motivation, further influencing their behaviors and emotional responses [15, 101].

Wording has a profound impact on emotional valence, arousal, and dominance in aspects such as information framing, word choice, and language style. Through careful wording design, the text can not only directly influence the audience’s emotional responses but also further amplify the emotional experience through the nervous system, sensorimotor system, and cognitive system. The choice of information framing is particularly important in shaping emotional valence. Gain framing (e.g., ”Taking this measure can improve health”) typically enhances positive emotions, making the audience feel optimistic and positive; whereas loss framing (e.g., ”If no action is taken, health will deteriorate”) is more likely to evoke negative emotions such as anxiety and tension [102]. These changes in emotional valence not only affect the psychological level but may also involve physiological responses, such as physical tension, activating the sensorimotor system [18]. Research shows that the arousal effect of negative emotions is more enduring; even after the emotional intensity subsides, negative impressions may persist for a long time; whereas positive emotions tend to fade quickly over time [104].

The choice of words in phrasing directly affects emotional responses and the motivational system. Positive words (e.g., ”happiness,” ”hope”) can evoke positive emotions, making the audience feel pleasant and reassured, while also stimulating exploratory motivation, prompting them to take proactive actions; whereas negative words (e.g., ”pain,” ”loss”) intensify emotional tension, eliciting sadness or anxiety, and are more likely to trigger avoidance motivation, leading the audience to prefer risk avoidance or self-protection [103, 153]. Additionally, mild words (e.g., ”challenge,” ”support”) can moderate negative emotional valence to some extent, preventing excessive emotionality; whereas intense words (e.g., ”loneliness,” ”fear”) amplify emotional arousal effects, significantly enhancing the emotional impact of the text [106]. In this process, the audience evaluates these words contextually through their cognitive system, thereby modulating their emotional responses and exhibiting different motivational tendencies in behavioral decision-making [36].

Language style plays a crucial role in enhancing the depth of emotional expression. Parallel structures (such as repetition and symmetrical sentence patterns) can enhance the rhythm and aesthetic appeal of the text, making emotional expression more attractive and impactful, thereby enhancing positive emotional valence and prolonging emotional persistence [99]. Additionally, phonetic characteristics subtly influence emotional arousal. For instance, abrupt phonemes (such as ”explosion” or ”roar”) tend to evoke tension and alertness, whereas smooth phonemes (such as ”gentle” or ”whisper”) are better suited to conveying soothing and calm emotions [105]. These linguistic features further enhance the audience’s emotional experience by activating the sensorimotor and nervous systems.

Notably, the effectiveness of wording is directly related to the degree of alignment with the audience’s cultural background in terms of emotional valence and arousal effects. When the language style of the text aligns with the audience’s cultural practices and community norms, the audience is more likely to experience emotional resonance, thereby enhancing the text’s appeal and credibility; conversely, language expressions that deviate from the cultural context may result in emotional detachment, weakening the text’s emotional impact and resonance [104].

Color plays a critical role in visual design, with its impact on user emotions primarily reflected in three dimensions: hue, saturation, and brightness. Hue, as the fundamental attribute of color, corresponds to different emotional effects. Studies show that warm colors (e.g., red, orange), due to their high emotional valence and arousal, are commonly used in advertising and entertainment design to convey positive emotions such as joy and excitement [19, 20]. Cool colors (e.g., blue, green) tend to convey calm and comfortable emotions, making them suitable for settings such as healthcare and meditation that aim to soothe emotions [112]. Long-wavelength colors (e.g., red) often enhance emotional arousal, while short-wavelength colors (e.g., blue) are better suited for conveying low-arousal emotional experiences [112]. Hue not only influences emotional valence but also shapes users’ emotional experiences and behavioral responses through the cognitive and motivational systems. Warm colors (e.g., red, orange), associated with a sense of urgency, are often used in warning signs or time-sensitive designs to quickly capture attention and elicit user alertness and action tendencies [161, 160]. Cool colors (e.g., blue, green), associated with comfort and safety, are suitable for conveying trust and relaxation, such as in healthcare or financial interface design [160].

Saturation describes the purity and intensity of color and significantly affects emotional valence and arousal. Highly saturated colors (e.g., vivid red, bright blue) have striking visual effects that enhance users’ emotional valence and arousal, making them suitable for attention-grabbing design scenarios [109]. For example, using highly saturated colors in advertisements or promotional pages can quickly capture users’ attention and stimulate the sensory-motor system, eliciting immediate responses such as pupil dilation or visual focus [161]. In contrast, low-saturation colors (e.g., soft bluish-gray) are more inclined to convey calm and serene emotional experiences [107]. They are suitable for interfaces intended for prolonged use, such as reading platforms or educational interfaces [163].

Brightness significantly influences the perception of emotional positivity or negativity. High-brightness colors (e.g., light yellow) typically make emotional valence more positive and are used to create a relaxed atmosphere [19]. For example, in children’s education or recreational settings, light yellow can stimulate users’ sense of pleasure through the nervous system, making them feel relaxed and at ease [61]. Low-brightness tones (e.g., dark gray, deep red) are often used to convey feelings of oppression or tension. For example, in suspense films or horror games, these tones activate the sympathetic nervous system, eliciting tension and high arousal [108].

By comprehensively regulating hue, saturation, and brightness, designers can precisely adjust users’ emotional valence and arousal levels. Moreover, the physiological and cognitive effects of color, mediated by the sensory-motor and nervous systems, further drive users to take specific actions under the influence of the motivational system. This systematic approach to color design helps optimize user experience, aligning it more closely with design objectives.

Images in visual design not only convey emotional information but also influence users’ cognition and memory [25, 26, 27]. Designers regulate users’ emotional experiences and evoke multi-layered emotional responses through image content, social cues, and presentation methods.

The content of an image determines the direction of emotional conveyance. Positive emotional images (e.g., natural landscapes, smiling faces) enhance users’ feelings of joy and relaxation. Commonly used in advertising and educational contexts, these images strengthen the valence of positive emotions through emotional connections [122]. Highly arousing negative emotional images (e.g., disaster scenes, horror visuals) evoke users’ sense of alertness, increasing their focus on critical information, making them suitable for public service campaigns or news reporting [28]. Challenging images (e.g., extreme sports) stimulate physical tension and the motivational system for risk-taking, while tranquil natural landscapes are more suited to evoke relaxation and calm emotional states [28]. These images not only trigger immediate physiological responses (e.g., increased heart rate or relaxation) through the sensory-motor system but also activate the nervous and cognitive systems, further enhancing users’ emotional evaluation and behavioral responses to the context [160, 59].

Social cues play an important regulatory role in the emotional transmission of images. Facial expressions, body language, and interactive contexts in images can significantly enhance users’ emotional resonance. For example, positive social cues such as smiling faces can partially mitigate users’ negative emotional responses even in adverse contexts, thereby enhancing emotional valence [123]. In group images, the overall emotional valence often outweighs the influence of individual emotions. For instance, images where most group members display smiling expressions typically elicit stronger positive emotional reactions, while the influence of a single individual showing extreme negative emotions is relatively limited [155]. Facial expressions in images not only trigger users’ emotional evaluations of the context (e.g., sympathy or anger) through the cognitive system but also activate the motivational system. For instance, collective emotions in celebratory scenes can inspire users’ motivation to engage in social interactions [122]. The use of such social cues makes images a powerful tool for enhancing emotional valence and the dominance.

Visual presentation methods further amplify the emotional impact of images. Research has shown that wide-format images (e.g., 16:9 aspect ratio) enhance users’ dominance and visual pleasure through their familiarity [124]. Moreover, by adjusting the composition ratio and visual focus of an image, designers can highlight key information and reduce visual distractions. For instance, images with shallow depth of field emphasize the subject by blurring the background, which helps reduce visual distractions, enhances users’ focus on key information, and stimulates the cognitive system for faster information processing [158].

By integrating content, social cues, and visual presentation methods, image design can precisely regulate users’ emotional valence, arousal, and dominance. Through multi-layered emotional systems, it can also stimulate specific behavioral motivations, playing a critical role in achieving design objectives.

Shape is a fundamental element in visual design, profoundly influencing users’ emotional valence, arousal, and dominance through its geometric characteristics.

The geometric properties of shapes play a critical role in emotional conveyance. Circular shapes and soft curves often convey feelings of friendliness and safety, enhancing positive valence and comfort [113]. For example, circular buttons and icons with soft edges in children’s education or healthcare interfaces can reduce anxiety and enhance trust through the nervous system [61]. In contrast, sharp shapes, with their angular features, convey alertness and tension, amplifying negative valence and eliciting high emotional arousal. They are suitable for traffic warning signs or designs that require attention [21]. Complex or irregular shapes enhance tension and psychological conflict through their instability, commonly used in thriller movie promotions or suspenseful content design. Their intense visual stimulation directly activates the sympathetic nervous system, inducing physiological tension responses [115].

The combination of shapes and emotional symbols further enriches the emotional experience. Studies have shown that anthropomorphic circles (e.g., smiley icons) can quickly evoke users’ positive emotions and enhance interactive experiences, significantly boosting user engagement through positive emotional valence [23]. Conversely, frowning faces or sharp-shaped symbols are often used to convey risk or warnings, triggering users’ defensive mechanisms and increasing their attention to the information [24]. The use of such symbols can influence users’ emotional evaluations of the context through the cognitive system while activating the motivational system to prompt specific behaviors.

By effectively utilizing the geometric properties of shapes and emotional symbols, designers can holistically regulate users’ emotional valence, arousal, and dominance. This multi-layered design approach not only enhances users’ emotional experiences through feedback from the sensory-motor and nervous systems but also guides users’ behavioral choices via the cognitive and motivational systems. This ensures that the design better aligns with the requirements of its application context.

Layout directly influences users’ emotional experiences in visual design through spatial arrangement and element organization. Key features such as symmetry, complexity, composition, and depth of field significantly regulate emotional valence and arousal levels.

Symmetrical layouts, with their sense of balance and order, reduce users’ cognitive load and create a stable and comfortable emotional experience [116]. This design induces physical comfort responses, such as relaxed eye movements, through the sensory-motor system, while also generating physiological calming effects via the nervous system [61]. The visual stability of symmetrical layouts is commonly used in financial or healthcare settings to enhance users’ sense of trust and security. In contrast, asymmetrical layouts, while increasing visual dynamism, may evoke slight feelings of unease, making them suitable for creative settings that aim to stimulate exploratory motivation [118].

Complex layouts, with diverse visual elements and rich layering, stimulate users’ curiosity and emotional engagement. This type of layout is commonly used in social media, entertainment apps, or creative display platforms, where intensified visual stimuli enhance emotional arousal levels. However, overly complex layouts may lead to information overload, diminishing users’ dominance and even inducing negative emotions [118]. Thus, complex layouts require a balance between richness and information clarity to avoid diminishing user experience. On the neurological level, complex layouts trigger stress responses, thereby enhancing users’ physiological alertness and focus.

Composition directly influences users’ emotional valence and dominance. The rule of thirds layout, by evenly dividing the frame, creates a harmonious visual effect, enhancing users’ comfort and positive emotional experiences. This composition helps users quickly focus on key information, improving the efficiency of information delivery [120]. Circular or curved layouts leverage visual enclosure and flow to capture users’ attention, making them suitable for branding and interactive designs. They enhance emotional engagement to increase user involvement [121]. For instance, slanted lines or curved guiding lines enhance the dynamism of the layout while increasing the appeal of key content.

Depth of field is an important method in layout design for emphasizing core information and reducing visual distractions. A shallow depth-of-field layout blurs the background and focuses on the subject, reducing interference from the sensory-motor system and enhancing users’ attention [158]. For example, shallow depth-of-field image designs on product pages can help users quickly identify core content while activating the nervous system to enhance information retention. Furthermore, this layout directs visual focus to trigger users’ execution motivation, making it suitable for action-oriented design scenarios.

Layout design can achieve a dynamic balance among emotional valence, arousal, and dominance by adjusting symmetry, complexity, composition, and depth of field. This multidimensional design approach activates sensory-motor, nervous, cognitive, and motivational systems, satisfying users’ emotional needs and driving behavioral responses.

Tone, as a critical feature of sound design, profoundly influences listeners’ emotional valence, arousal levels, and dominance through adjustments in pitch, timbre, speech rate, and volume. Research shows that the consistency between tone and the emotional content of words can significantly enhance listeners’ emotional experiences. For instance, a pleasant tone (lively and bright timbre) paired with positive words can amplify the words’ positive valence, while a deep or melancholic tone can intensify the emotional negativity of negative words, leaving a deeper emotional impression on listeners [125]. This emotional consistency effect not only strengthens the expression of emotional information but also leaves a lasting impression in listeners’ emotional memory.

Supportive tones (e.g., soft volume, slow speech rate, gentle timbre) can convey positive and empathetic emotions, making listeners feel respected and accepted, thereby enhancing emotional valence and fostering a calm emotional atmosphere. In contrast, controlling or hurried tones (e.g., high volume, fast speech rate) often convey a sense of pressure, reducing emotional valence, and particularly in the context of negative content, they can provoke tension and discomfort in listeners [14]. These tones act on the sensory-motor system through the auditory system, eliciting physical responses such as muscle relaxation or tension, thereby focusing listeners’ attention on the information conveyed by the tone [152, 165] .

At the level of emotional arousal, variations in tone speed and intensity play a crucial role. High-arousal tones (e.g., anger or fear) activate auditory neural pathways and the sympathetic nervous system, triggering physiological responses such as increased heart rate and pupil dilation, thereby heightening listeners’ perception of urgent or high-risk information [12]. In contrast, gentle tones (moderate volume, slow speech rate, steady pitch) reduce arousal levels, helping listeners alleviate anxiety and achieve a state of calm. Such tones are often used in relaxation settings, where parasympathetic nervous system regulation induces physical comfort, such as reduced blood pressure and slower heart rate [13].

The emotional impact of tone is also deeply rooted in the cognitive system. Different tones provide semantic cues for information. For example, a rising interrogative tone implies incomplete intentions, enhancing the audience’s anticipation for subsequent content, while a descending declarative tone conveys certainty and trust, reducing cognitive load [161]. Moreover, tone not only influences the immediate interpretation of information but also has a lasting impact on the emotional representation of words, which remains significant even after explicit memory fades [125]. Therefore, tone plays a critical role in enhancing the emotional value and memory retention of information for listeners.

The activation of the motivational system is also a critical aspect of how tone influences emotions. Authoritative tone (fast speech rate and stable intonation) conveys seriousness and urgency, which can stimulate action motivation, prompting listeners to make quick decisions or take action [166]. For example, authoritative tone in navigation instructions can enhance users’ focus on tasks. Supportive tone (gentle and melodic voice) tends to evoke a sense of safety, making listeners more willing to accept information and establish emotional connections with it [14]. This activation of the motivational system not only increases information acceptance but also enhances users’ trust and reliance on the design.

Overall, tone, through the synergistic effects of the sensory-motor system, nervous system, cognitive system, and motivational system, exerts a multi-level influence on the regulation of listeners’ emotions and the guidance of their behavior. In tone design, designers can precisely adjust tone characteristics to meet the needs of different scenarios, thereby achieving effective emotional shaping and positive behavioral guidance.

Sound effects significantly influence emotional valence and arousal through spectral characteristics, harmonicity, and attack slopes [126]. Harmonious intervals (e.g., perfect fifth or perfect fourth) typically evoke positive valence, making listeners feel comfortable and relaxed. This sound characteristic is widely used in relaxation and meditation scenarios, such as melodies in background music simulating natural sounds (e.g., flowing water or birdsong), helping to create a peaceful atmosphere. In contrast, dissonant intervals (e.g., minor second or major second) often induce tension, unease, or negative emotions due to their high-frequency energy and acoustic roughness, making them suitable for portraying danger or suspense[127]. This contrast manifests in the sensory-motor system as varying degrees of physical responses, such as muscle relaxation when hearing harmonious sounds, while dissonant sounds may lead to muscle tension or stress reactions like frowning [152].

The attack slope of sound effects, which refers to the rate of change from silence to maximum amplitude, directly affects emotional arousal levels. Rapid-attack sound effects (e.g., abrupt alarm sounds) significantly heighten listeners’ alertness and tension [126]. Such high-arousal sound effects are commonly used in emergency scenarios, such as fire alarms or medical alert tones, to quickly capture attention and activate the sympathetic nervous system, eliciting physiological responses like increased heart rate and rapid breathing [164]. In contrast, slow-attack sound effects (e.g., gradually intensifying string music) reduce arousal levels through smooth volume changes, creating a calming emotional experience suitable for emotional regulation or meditation scenarios [161]. This characteristic of sound effects is primarily regulated by the amygdala and hypothalamus within the nervous system, determining the intensity of emotional arousal and physiological response patterns [164].

From the perspective of the cognitive system, sound effects influence emotions not only through direct perception but also by shaping listeners’ emotional evaluations through contextual cues. For instance, harmonious background sound effects with gentle rhythms are often interpreted as positive and safe contextual cues, enhancing listeners’ sense of pleasure and focus. In contrast, sharp sound effects (e.g., metal scraping or piercing alarm sounds) convey signals of threat, prompting listeners to assess potential risks and heightening their vigilance and preparedness [128]. The role of sound effects in the cognitive system is also evident in their auxiliary function in information processing. For example, prompt sounds within a soft soundscape can improve task performance, whereas complex or jarring sound effects may distract attention and impair cognitive performance [128].

Sound effects also have a significant impact on activating the motivational system. Reward sound effects (e.g., task completion prompts) reinforce positive feedback, stimulating listeners’ achievement motivation and encouraging greater engagement in target tasks [166]. For example, reward sound effects for gaining points in games increase player engagement and enhance satisfaction upon task completion. Conversely, alarm sounds convey urgent information that triggers protective motivation, prompting listeners to take swift risk-avoidance actions. This motivational trigger mechanism is widely used in affective computing and behavioral design to guide users in making quick decisions in specific contexts [130].

Music exerts a multidimensional impact on emotional valence and arousal levels through features such as melody, rhythm, and emotional complexity. Music tempo is one of the key factors in emotional regulation. Fast-paced music (such as tempos above 130 beats per minute) induces higher emotional arousal [131], making listeners feel excited and invigorated, and is widely used in settings like fitness or competitive sports [132]. In contrast, slow-paced music (such as tempos between 60 and 90 beats per minute) helps alleviate anxiety and promotes relaxation[131], making it a common choice in relaxing contexts such as meditation and psychotherapy [133]. From the sensorimotor system perspective, fast-paced music often triggers bodily movements, such as involuntary swaying, while slow-paced music aids in relaxing the body by relaxing muscles and stabilizing breathing [134, 135]. On the neurological level, fast-paced music enhances excitation by activating the sympathetic nervous system, while slow-paced music regulates through the parasympathetic nervous system, lowering heart rate and blood pressure, thereby providing physiological comfort and relaxation [136].

The melodic characteristics of music also play a key role in shaping emotional valence. Harmonious melodies and bright tonalities typically convey positive emotions, helping to enhance focus and creativity, commonly found in work or social settings [131]. In contrast, low tonality and slow melodies convey sad or introspective emotions, widely used in emotional films or therapeutic settings [137]. Dissonant melodies, due to their tense and chaotic nature, are often used to create tension or provoke alertness in scenes such as horror films or warning messages. Additionally, fast-paced music and harmonious melodies often stimulate achievement motivation and exploration motivation, helping listeners stay focused on tasks and improve performance; whereas low, somber music may trigger introspective motivation, encouraging listeners to engage in deep emotional thinking and reflection [136].

Music not only affects an individual’s psychological state through emotional regulation but also significantly influences the cognitive system, thereby impacting task performance. Harmonious music helps improve the efficiency of cognitive tasks, such as enhancing reading speed and memory; whereas dissonant music may distract attention and reduce task efficiency [161]. Positive emotional music can stimulate the willingness to perform tasks and promote active engagement; in contrast, negative emotional music may suppress initiative, making listeners more cautious [131].

The emotional complexity of music enhances the depth of emotional experiences. Music that blends positive and negative emotions (such as melodies combining sorrow and appreciation) can evoke a deeper level of emotional resonance, particularly in contexts with high emotional expression demands, such as film scores [138].

Interaction methods, as a core element of user experience design, profoundly influence users’ emotional experiences, behavioral performance, and the overall effectiveness of system interactions. By optimizing the intuitiveness of interactions, feedback mechanisms, and tactile or gesture-based operations, significant improvements can be achieved in users’ emotional valence, arousal levels, and dominance, while also stimulating the coordinated engagement of sensory-motor systems, neural systems, cognitive systems, and motivational systems.

Intuitive interaction methods, with their simplicity and low cognitive load, significantly enhance users’ positive emotional valence. For example, common interaction methods such as clicking and sliding reduce learning costs, enabling users to quickly adapt to interface logic and complete tasks smoothly, thereby enhancing operational fluidity and comfort [139]. Effortless and natural gestures, such as single-finger swiping and tapping, can activate the sensory-motor system, allowing users to perceive the smoothness and coordination of interactions, further enhancing the enjoyment of the experience [140].

In contrast, complex interaction methods (e.g., multi-finger gestures, cumbersome task flows) increase users’ operational burden and learning costs, significantly leading to frustration and anxiety. For instance, in mobile applications requiring complex gestures, users may feel frustrated due to difficulty in mastering operations quickly, which significantly reduces emotional valence and willingness to engage. Additionally, such high-complexity operations may cause unnecessary physical tension, such as muscle strain or hand fatigue, further diminishing users’ trust and satisfaction with the interface [140]. This negative emotional experience is particularly pronounced for first-time users of a new system, potentially leading to a negative overall evaluation of the interaction.

Real-time feedback mechanisms play a crucial role in interaction design. By utilizing visual (e.g., button highlights), auditory (e.g., notification sounds), or haptic (e.g., vibrations) feedback, users can immediately perceive the results of their actions, significantly reducing emotional stress caused by uncertainty [141]. Haptic feedback is particularly important; micro-vibrations or warm tactile sensations activate the sensory-motor system, enhancing users’ physical perception of operations while improving intuitiveness and comfort [142]. For example, in navigation applications, combining tactile vibrations upon confirmation with visual highlights helps users clearly perceive task completion, significantly enhancing their dominance and achievement.

Exploratory interaction design, by offering freedom and reward feedback, enhances users’ emotional arousal and significantly stimulates their exploratory motivation. For example, features like map zooming and interface dragging allow users to freely adjust perspectives and explore system functionalities, enhancing their dominance over tasks and positive emotional experiences [143]. Additionally, reward-based feedback (e.g., visual cues or sound effects upon task completion) activates the brain’s reward center, further enhancing users’ sense of achievement and engagement. This design is particularly effective in gamified interfaces or learning platforms, motivating users to continue interacting and enriching the depth and breadth of their emotional experience [141].

Interaction methods, by optimizing operational fluidity, feedback mechanisms, and emotional incentives, can significantly enhance users’ emotional experiences and behavioral performance across multiple dimensions. Designers, by refining interaction details, can effectively activate users’ sensory-motor systems, neural systems, cognitive systems, and motivational systems, achieving emotional regulation and behavioral guidance in various contexts. This user-centered design philosophy not only enhances the usability of the system but also provides a more systematic theoretical foundation and practical guidance for emotional design.

Motion effects, as an indispensable element of interaction design, significantly influence users’ emotional experiences and behavioral responses through characteristics such as speed, path, direction, and complexity. The speed of motion effects is a crucial factor in influencing the level of emotional arousal. Fast motion effects (such as rapid page transitions or zooming) can stimulate the visual tracking system and the sensory-motor system, enhancing dynamic perception intensity, thereby increasing emotional arousal levels. These effects are suitable for attracting attention or creating a tense atmosphere [144]. Conversely, slow motion effects (such as pages gradually unfolding or smooth loading) extend users’ emotional perception time, creating a calm or contemplative atmosphere. These low-dynamic effects can activate the parasympathetic nervous system, reducing users’ physiological tension levels, which helps enhance emotional valence in meditation or relaxation contexts [145].

The path and direction of motion effects profoundly influence user emotions. Linear motion conveys stability and reliability, enhancing users’ trust in the interface and their emotional valence. Conversely, curved or irregular paths may evoke tension and unease, making them suitable for warning or emergency designs [146]. Additionally, the design of motion direction also impacts users’ emotional perception. Inward motion typically conveys attraction and affinity, helping to enhance user engagement. Outward motion, on the other hand, often evokes a sense of detachment, making it suitable for undo notifications or exit animations[146].

Animation complexity plays a critical role in emotional regulation. Moderately complex animation designs can activate the cognitive system by capturing attention, optimize information processing efficiency, and enhance users’ emotional engagement [147]. For example, progressively unfolding interface animations can optimize information flow and enhance memory retention. However, excessive complexity may increase cognitive load, leading to frustration and emotional stress, especially in multitasking scenarios where it can reduce emotional valence [144].

Animation effects can also activate the user’s motivation system, enhancing emotional engagement and behavioral intention. For example, high-motion designs (e.g., hover buttons or layered animations) stimulate exploratory and achievement motivation by enhancing dynamic effects, increasing user engagement and task completion rates [145]. Dynamic navigation effects (e.g., auto-scrolling or page transitions) leverage instant feedback mechanisms to enhance users’ perception of task completion status, further increasing their dominance and confidence.

Animation design can optimize emotions for various scenarios through the adjustment of speed, path, direction, and complexity. For instance, high-dynamic effects are suitable for scenarios requiring heightened emotional arousal or high engagement, while low-dynamic effects and slow motion are better for conveying calmness and contemplative emotions. The adjustment of animation complexity requires a balance between emotional stimulation and information processing to maximize user acceptance and content retention. By designing animation characteristics appropriately, designers can effectively enhance the emotional dimensions of user experience.

Navigation design profoundly impacts users’ emotional valence, emotional arousal, and motivation system activation by optimizing information architecture and path guidance. A streamlined navigation structure, dynamic navigation elements, and consistent design collectively contribute to smoother user experiences and stronger positive emotional feedback.

Simplified navigation is a key factor in enhancing users’ emotional valence. Clear menu hierarchies and intuitive structures help users quickly locate target information, reducing exploration time and operational difficulty, thus bringing joy and satisfaction [141]. For example, on e-commerce platforms, users can quickly find desired products through one-click filtering functions, significantly reducing operational burdens and enhancing trust and willingness to use the platform [148]. In contrast, multi-layered nested menus or hidden navigation controls may increase users’ cognitive load and frustration, particularly when users struggle to adapt quickly, making such emotional reactions especially pronounced [149].

Dynamic navigation design plays a significant role in enhancing user engagement and emotional arousal levels. For instance, the expansion effect of dynamic menus or sliding transitions in path selection enhance users’ perception of task status through the integration of visual and tactile elements [139]. These designs also activate the sensory-motor system, enhancing users’ dominance and interaction fluency through dynamic visual stimuli and tactile feedback, thereby making the operation process more enjoyable [146]. The advantage of dynamic navigation lies in its ability to balance visual appeal and functionality, aiding users in focusing on their task objectives.

Consistency design is the foundation for building a reliable navigation system. Navigation layouts and intuitive operational logic aligned with users’ cognitive models can significantly enhance their familiarity and trust in the system [148]. For instance, common menu categorization and consistent navigation styles can reduce users’ learning costs, decrease uncertainty during operations, and enhance their dominance over the system. Conversely, navigation anomalies such as dead links or inactive buttons may undermine users’ trust in the interface, causing emotional unease and a sense of loss of control, thereby reducing engagement willingness [149].

Exploratory navigation design stimulates the activity of the motivational system. For example, navigation designs that allow users to drag, zoom, or expand multi-layer information maps create more opportunities for active participation and exploration. These designs enhance operational enjoyment and a sense of accomplishment, encouraging users to continue interacting [143]. Additionally, the predictability and logic of navigation can boost users’ confidence in completing tasks, thereby enhancing operational enjoyment and motivation.